What happened to the Franklin expedition?
In 1845 HMS Erebus and HMS Terror sailed under Sir John Franklin to find a Northwest Passage, and none of the 129 men came home. The fate of the crew has been pieced together from two cairn notes, Inuit testimony, skeletal remains and the wrecks themselves.
7 established, 2 disputed, 2 debunked, 3 unresolved. We do not pick an answer; the evidence places each claim. How we decide
50 citations from 10 independent sources - 40 echo the same voices and count once. Graded A1-C1.
Added 29 Sept 2026
What the four states mean
- Establishedsupported, uncontested
- Disputedcredible sources disagree
- Debunkedrefuted by the evidence
- Unresolvedno settled answer
Established 7supported, uncontested
A note added to the same record on 25 April 1848 states that the ships, beset since 12 September 1846, were deserted on 22 April 1848, that 105 officers and men had landed under Captain Crozier, and that Franklin had died on 11 June 1847.▰▰▰▱▱ likely3 points
Supports- round the margin of the paper upon which Lieutenant Gore in 1847 wrote those words of hope and promise, another hand had subsequently written the following words:--Francis Leopold M'Clintock, In the Arctic Seas (The Voyage of the 'Fox'), transcribing the Victory Point record (Project Gutenberg) primary
- "April 25, 1848.--H.M. ships 'Terror' and 'Erebus' were deserted on the 22nd April, 5 leagues N.N.W. of this, having been beset since 12th September, 1846. The officers and crews, consisting of 105 souls, under the command of Captain F. R. M. Crozier, landed here in lat. 69° 37' 42" N., long. 98° 41' W. Sir John Franklin died on the 11th June, 1847; and the total loss by deaths in the expedition has been to this date 9 officers and 15 men.Francis Leopold M'Clintock, In the Arctic Seas (The Voyage of the 'Fox'), transcribing the Victory Point record (Project Gutenberg) primary
- A later message, penned in April 1848, stated that the ships had now been stuck in the ice for a year-and-a-half, and that Franklin and some crew members had perished. The survivors had deserted the ships and were making for the Great Fish River (now the Back River), to the southeast.Parks Canada, Directory of Federal Heritage Designations: Wrecks of HMS Erebus and HMS Terror National Historic Site of Canada authoritative
Rae's 1854 report concluded from the mutilated state of many of the bodies and the contents of the kettles that the men had been driven to cannibalism, though none of the Inuit he spoke with had seen the men or the corpses themselves.▰▰▰▱▱ likely3 points
Supports- From the mutilated state of many of the bodies, and the contents of the kettles, it is evident that our wretched countrymen had been driven to the last dread alternative as a means of sustaining life.John Rae, report dated York Factory, 1 September 1854, in Further papers relative to the recent arctic expeditions (House of Commons, 1854-55), transcribed by Great Unsolved Mysteries in Canadian History primary
- From the mutilated state of many of the corpses and the contents of the kettles, it is evident that our wretched countrymen had been driven to the last resource - cannibalism - as a means of prolonging existence.Royal Museums Greenwich, The Frozen Deep: the Dickens-Franklin connection analysis
- None of the Esquimaux with whom I had communication saw the "white men" either when living or after death, nor had they ever been at the place where the corpses were found, but had their information from natives who had been thereJohn Rae, report dated York Factory, 1 September 1854, in Further papers relative to the recent arctic expeditions (House of Commons, 1854-55), transcribed by Great Unsolved Mysteries in Canadian History primary
DNA matched to living descendants has identified individual sailors, the first being John Gregory, Engineer of HMS Erebus. James Fitzjames of HMS Erebus was identified in 2024, and his mandible bears cut marks showing his body was subject to cannibalism.▰▰▰▱▱ likely4 points
Supports- We conclude that DNA and genealogical evidence confirm the identity of the remains as those of Warrant Officer John Gregory, Engineer, HMS Erebus. This is the first member of the 1845 Franklin expedition whose identity has been confirmed through DNA and genealogical analyses.Stenton, Fratpietro, Keenleyside and Park, DNA identification of a sailor from the 1845 Franklin northwest passage expedition, Polar Record (2021) authoritative
- Fitzjames’ mandible is one of the bones exhibiting multiple cut marks, demonstrating that after his death his body was subject to cannibalism.University of Waterloo, Another Franklin expedition crew member has been identified (24 September 2024) analysis
- In 2024, they had another DNA match for James Fitzjames, the Captain of Erebus whose body was subject to cannibalism.University of Waterloo, DNA matches identify four more sailors from Franklin expedition (6 May 2026) analysis
- The identification was made possible by a DNA sample from a living descendant, which matched the DNA that was discovered at the archaeological site on King William IslandUniversity of Waterloo, Another Franklin expedition crew member has been identified (24 September 2024) analysis
A record dated May 1847, found at Point Victory on King William's Land, reported the expedition's success up to that date, with Sir John Franklin commanding and "All well."▰▰▱▱▱ likely4 points
Supports- he had found a record--the record so ardently sought for, of the Franklin Expedition--at Point Victory, on the N.W. coast of King William's Land.Francis Leopold M'Clintock, In the Arctic Seas (The Voyage of the 'Fox'), transcribing the Victory Point record (Project Gutenberg) primary
- in all other respects the tale is told in as few words as possible of their wonderful success up to that date, May, 1847.Francis Leopold M'Clintock, In the Arctic Seas (The Voyage of the 'Fox'), transcribing the Victory Point record (Project Gutenberg) primary
- those on board the 'Erebus' and 'Terror' were "all well," and the gallant Franklin still commanded.Francis Leopold M'Clintock, In the Arctic Seas (The Voyage of the 'Fox'), transcribing the Victory Point record (Project Gutenberg) primary
- "Sir John Franklin commanding the expedition. "All well.Francis Leopold M'Clintock, In the Arctic Seas (The Voyage of the 'Fox'), transcribing the Victory Point record (Project Gutenberg) primary
In 1854 John Rae reported information from Inuit that about forty white men had been seen travelling south over the ice along the west shore of King William's Land, dragging a boat and sledges and looking thin.▰▰▱▱▱ likely3 points
Supports- information has been obtained and articles purchased from the natives, which prove beyond a doubt that a portion, if not all, of the then survivors of the long-lost and unfortunate party under Sir John Franklin had met with a fate as melancholy and dreadful as it is possible to imagine.John Rae, report dated York Factory, 1 September 1854, in Further papers relative to the recent arctic expeditions (House of Commons, 1854-55), transcribed by Great Unsolved Mysteries in Canadian History primary
- In the spring, four winters past (1850), whilst some Esquimaux families were killing seals near the north shore of a large island, named in Arrowsmith's charts, King William's Land, about forty white men were seen travelling in company southward over the ice, and dragging a boat and sledges with them. They were passing along the west shore of the above-named island.John Rae, report dated York Factory, 1 September 1854, in Further papers relative to the recent arctic expeditions (House of Commons, 1854-55), transcribed by Great Unsolved Mysteries in Canadian History primary
- From the appearance of the men (all of whom, with the exception of one officer, were hauling on the drag ropes of a sledge, and were looking thin,) they were then supposed to be getting short of provisionsJohn Rae, report dated York Factory, 1 September 1854, in Further papers relative to the recent arctic expeditions (House of Commons, 1854-55), transcribed by Great Unsolved Mysteries in Canadian History primary
Bones from a site of Franklin's last expedition found in 1992, representing at least 11 men, carry cut marks on about one-quarter of the remains, placed in a pattern consistent with disarticulation and defleshing.▰▰▱▱▱ likely5 points
Supports- In 1992, a previously unrecorded site of Sir John Franklin’s last expeditionKeenleyside, Bertulli and Fricke, The Final Days of the Franklin Expedition: New Skeletal Evidence, Arctic 50(1):36-46 (1997) authoritative
- Nearly 400 human bones and bone fragments, representing a minimum of 11 men, were also found at the site.Keenleyside, Bertulli and Fricke, The Final Days of the Franklin Expedition: New Skeletal Evidence, Arctic 50(1):36-46 (1997) authoritative
- Cut marks on approximately one-quarter of the remains support 19th-century Inuit accounts of cannibalism among Franklin’s crew.Keenleyside, Bertulli and Fricke, The Final Days of the Franklin Expedition: New Skeletal Evidence, Arctic 50(1):36-46 (1997) authoritative
- Approximately one-quarter of the cut marks are located in close proximity to articular surfaces, a pattern consistent with intentional disarticulation (Ubelaker, 1989:105).Keenleyside, Bertulli and Fricke 1997, excerpted by Great Unsolved Mysteries in Canadian History authoritative
- The location of the cut marks is also consistent with defleshing, or removal of muscle tissueKeenleyside, Bertulli and Fricke 1997, excerpted by Great Unsolved Mysteries in Canadian History authoritative
The wreck of HMS Erebus was found on 2 September 2014 and HMS Terror was found in Terror Bay in 2016, with Inuit knowledge helping searchers locate both.▰▰▱▱▱ likely5 points
Supports- HMS Erebus was found on September 2, 2014.Parks Canada, Finding HMS Erebus authoritative
- Local Inuit information and bad weather combined to make finding HMS Terror in September 2016 an unexpected surprise.Parks Canada, Finding HMS Terror authoritative
- What they found was a three-masted ship upright on the bottom of the bay, almost 100 kilometres from where teammates were surveying the northern search area.Parks Canada, Finding HMS Terror authoritative
- Inuit knowledge provided clues about the fate of the Franklin Expedition and helped search teams locate the wrecks in 2014 and 2016.Parks Canada, Directory of Federal Heritage Designations: Wrecks of HMS Erebus and HMS Terror National Historic Site of Canada authoritative
- HMS Terror is in Terror Bay on the south shore of King William Island.Parks Canada, Directory of Federal Heritage Designations: Wrecks of HMS Erebus and HMS Terror National Historic Site of Canada authoritative
Disputed 2credible sources disagree
Lead poisoning contributed to the demise of the expedition.▰▰▰▱▱ likely2 against4 points
Supports- Mass spectroscopy and x-ray fluorescence revealed elevated lead levels consistent with previous measurements, further supporting the conclusion that lead poisoning contributed to the demise of the expedition.Keenleyside, Bertulli and Fricke, The Final Days of the Franklin Expedition: New Skeletal Evidence, Arctic 50(1):36-46 (1997) authoritative
- Whilst lead alone may not have caused the disaster, it is proposed that high levels of lead may have interacted with other factors including dietary insufficiencies and individual constitutional differences to render some, but not all, of the crew more vulnerable to debility in the final throes of the expedition.Millar, Bowman and Battersby, A re-analysis of the supposed role of lead poisoning in Sir John Franklin's last expedition, 1845-1848, Polar Record (2014) authoritative
Against- Taken all together our skeletal microstructural results do not support the conclusion that Pb played a pivotal role in the loss of Franklin and his crew.Swanston et al., Franklin expedition lead exposure: New insights from high resolution confocal x-ray fluorescence imaging of skeletal microstructure, PLOS ONE (2018) authoritative
- Finally, the comparative analysis with the Antigua samples did not support the hypothesis that the Franklin sailors were exposed to an unusually high level of Pb for the time period.Swanston et al., Franklin expedition lead exposure: New insights from high resolution confocal x-ray fluorescence imaging of skeletal microstructure, PLOS ONE (2018) authoritative
Lead isotope analysis has been read as showing that the crew's lead came from improperly soldered tin cans supplied to the expedition, an interpretation that has been challenged.▰▰▰▱▱ roughly even chance2 against3 points
Supports- Lead isotope ratio analysis revealed the source of this lead to be improperly soldered tin cans supplied to the expedition (Kowal et al., 1991), although this interpretation has recently been challenged (Farrer, 1993).Keenleyside, Bertulli and Fricke, The Final Days of the Franklin Expedition: New Skeletal Evidence, Arctic 50(1):36-46 (1997) authoritative
Against- More recently, other Pb sources have also been suggested, including a new water system that had been installed on HMS Erebus and HMS Terror for the 1845 expeditionSwanston et al., Franklin expedition lead exposure: New insights from high resolution confocal x-ray fluorescence imaging of skeletal microstructure, PLOS ONE (2018) authoritative
- In both the bone and dental samples, there is evidence of Pb exposure that dates to well before the expedition began.Swanston et al., Franklin expedition lead exposure: New insights from high resolution confocal x-ray fluorescence imaging of skeletal microstructure, PLOS ONE (2018) authoritative
Debunked 2refuted by the evidence
An 1854 essay in Household Words argued it was in the highest degree improbable that the officers and crews of the two lost ships would, in any extremity of hunger, eat the bodies of their dead companions.Refuted by
Cut marks on approximately one-quarter of the remains support 19th-century Inuit accounts of cannibalism among Franklin’s crew.
refuted2 against5 pointsThe claim rested on- that it is in highest degree improbable that such men as the officers and crews of the two lost ships would or could, in any extremity of hunger, alleviate the pains of starvation by this horrible means.Charles Dickens, "The Lost Arctic Voyagers", Household Words (1854), transcribed by the Victorian Web primary
- With her support, he publicly discredited Rae's evidence in articles published in the journal Household Words .Royal Museums Greenwich, The Frozen Deep: the Dickens-Franklin connection analysis
- leading to the conclusion that there is no reason whatever to believe, that any of its members prolonged their existence by the dreadful expedient of eating the bodies of their dead companions.Charles Dickens, "The Lost Arctic Voyagers", Household Words (1854), transcribed by the Victorian Web primary
Refuted by- Cut marks on approximately one-quarter of the remains support 19th-century Inuit accounts of cannibalism among Franklin’s crew.Keenleyside, Bertulli and Fricke, The Final Days of the Franklin Expedition: New Skeletal Evidence, Arctic 50(1):36-46 (1997) authoritative
- Those accounts were fully corroborated in 1997 by the late Dr. Anne Keenleyside who found cut marks on nearly one-quarter of the human bones at NgLj-2, proving that the bodies of at least four of the men who died there had been subject to cannibalism.University of Waterloo, Another Franklin expedition crew member has been identified (24 September 2024) analysis
The same 1854 Household Words essay held that no one could affirm that the last of Franklin's men were not set upon and slain by the Inuit.Refuted by
From what I could learn there is no reason to suspect any violence had been offered to the sufferers by the natives.
refuted2 against5 pointsThe claim rested on- no man can, with any show of reason, undertake take to affirm that this sad remnant of Franklin's gallant band were not set upon and slain by the Esquimaux themselves.Charles Dickens, "The Lost Arctic Voyagers", Household Words (1854), transcribed by the Victorian Web primary
- With her support, he publicly discredited Rae's evidence in articles published in the journal Household Words .Royal Museums Greenwich, The Frozen Deep: the Dickens-Franklin connection analysis
- But Dickens went further in correspondence accusing the Inuit peoples of being 'a gross handful of uncivilised people, with a domesticity of blood and blubber', and of attacking and killing Franklin and his menRoyal Museums Greenwich, The Frozen Deep: the Dickens-Franklin connection analysis
Refuted by- From what I could learn there is no reason to suspect any violence had been offered to the sufferers by the natives.John Rae, report dated York Factory, 1 September 1854, in Further papers relative to the recent arctic expeditions (House of Commons, 1854-55), transcribed by Great Unsolved Mysteries in Canadian History primary
- Nineteenth-century Inuit accounts [ 4 , 5 ] of the physical condition of expedition members they encountered following the desertion of the ships, and their descriptions of corpses seen at several locations along the escape route, suggest that the men were starving and, in some locations, had resorted to cannibalismSwanston et al., Franklin expedition lead exposure: New insights from high resolution confocal x-ray fluorescence imaging of skeletal microstructure, PLOS ONE (2018) authoritative
Unresolved 3no settled answer
The principal factors underlying the deaths of all members of the expedition remain a mystery and the subject of continuing debate.▰▰▰▱▱ likely2 points
Supports- This interest has been fueled, in part, by the fact that the principal factors underlying the deaths of all members of the expedition remain a mystery and the subject of continuing debate.Swanston et al., Franklin expedition lead exposure: New insights from high resolution confocal x-ray fluorescence imaging of skeletal microstructure, PLOS ONE (2018) authoritative
- It is unclear whether such debility would have been incapacitating or exceptional for the lead-contaminated environment of nineteenth-century Britain.Millar, Bowman and Battersby, A re-analysis of the supposed role of lead poisoning in Sir John Franklin's last expedition, 1845-1848, Polar Record (2014) authoritative
Whether scurvy afflicted the Franklin crew cannot be settled from their bones: a recent analysis found no bony evidence for it, but past scurvy shows in bone only if the person recovered.▰▰▱▱▱ likely2 points
Supports- Scurvy was also considered to be a contributing factor [ 1 ], but a recent analysis indicated that there is no bony evidence to support this claim [ 10 ].Swanston et al., Franklin expedition lead exposure: New insights from high resolution confocal x-ray fluorescence imaging of skeletal microstructure, PLOS ONE (2018) authoritative
- We can only speculate whether scurvy was also an issue for the Franklin crew, because the lack of bony evidence could be related to the continued decline in the health of the crewmembers since past scurvy cases can only be diagnosed if new bone formation occurs during recovery when vitamin C is restored to the diet [ 10 ].Swanston et al., Franklin expedition lead exposure: New insights from high resolution confocal x-ray fluorescence imaging of skeletal microstructure, PLOS ONE (2018) authoritative
How HMS Terror came to rest in Terror Bay is an open question: the ship was not left at anchor, some hatches were open and others closed, and a small boat appears to have gone down with it.▰▰▱▱▱ likely2 points
Supports- HMS Terror is in Terror Bay on the south shore of King William Island.Parks Canada, Directory of Federal Heritage Designations: Wrecks of HMS Erebus and HMS Terror National Historic Site of Canada authoritative
- Although some of the hatches are closed, others are open. It appears a small boat went down with the ship. The ship was not left at anchor. The most tantalizing question of all may be how HMS Terror got there.Parks Canada, Finding HMS Terror authoritative
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